ANATOMY&PHYSIOLOGY FOR NURSES

TERMS USED IN ANATOMY.      Many parts of the body are symmetrically arranged. For example the right and left limbs are similar: there are right and left eyes and ears, right and left lungs, and right and left kidneys. But there is also a good deal of asymmetry in the arrangement of the body.  The spleen lies entirely on the left side: the larger part of the liver lies on the right side: the pancreas lies partly on each side.                        The human body is studied from the erect position with the arms by the sides and the palms of the hands facing forwards, the head erect and eyes looking straight in front.  This is described as the anatomical position.           The various parts of the body are then described in relation to certain imaginary lines or planes. The median plane runs through the centre of the body. Any structure which lies nearer to the median plane of the body than another is said  to be medial to that other. For example the hamstring muscles which lie on the inner side of the thigh are nearer the median plane than those which lie on the outer side and are therefore medial the inner side of the thigh is decribed as the medial aspect and the outer as the lateral aspect.                                                                                                                                    (continue)             The terms internal and external are used to describe the relative distance of an organ or structure from the certre of a cavity. The ribs for example have an internal surface which is near the chest cavity and an external surface which is on the outer side, farther away from the cavity.  The internal carotid artery is within the cranial cavity and the external is outside the cavity.            The terms superficial and deep are used to denote relative distance from the surface of the body, and the terms superior and inferior denote positions relatively high or low, particularly in relation to the trunk, such as the superior and inferior surfaces of the clavicle.            The terms anterior and posterior are synonymous with ventral and dorsal.  These terms are only applied to man in the erect attitude or 'anatomical position' For example the anterior and posterior tibial arteries lie in front and behind the leg .In describing the hand the terms palmar and dorsal are used instead of anterior and posterior, and in describing the foot the terms plantar and dorsal are similarly employed           The terms proximal or distal are employed to describe nearness to, or distance from a given point, particularly in relation to the limbs. For example .the proximal phalanges are hearer to the wrist and the distal ones are the farthest away.  When three structures are in a line running from the median plane of the body outwards, they are described as being placed in medial, intermediate and lateral positions. An example of this is seen in the arrangement of the three cuneiform bones of the foot. Similarly when three structures run from front to back (anterior to posterior) or from above downwards (superior to inferior), these are described as anterior, middle and posterior as happens in the arrangement of the three fossae of the skull and superior, middle and inferior, as occurs in the arrangement of the superior, middle and inferior radio-ulnar joints.

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY FOR NURSES

INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body and of the relationship of its constituent parts to each other. In regional anatomy a geographical study is made and each region, e.g. arm, leg, head, chest, etc., is found to consist of a number of structures common to all regions such as bones, muiscles, nerves, blood vessels and so on. From this study it follows that a number of different systems exist. These have been grouped together and described unser the heading systematic anatomy.               A study of the position and relationship of one part of the body could not be separated from a consideration of the use of each structure and system. This study led to the employment of the term functional anatomy which is closely allied to the study of physiology. Then again it was found that certain structures could be examined  by the naked eye and the term macroscopic anatomy was introduced to describe this study,in distinction to microscopic anatomy which necessitates the use of a microscope.  Closely allied to the study of anatomy are histology and cytology. The former deals with the fine structures of the body , and the latter with a study of the cells. Physiology is the study of the functions of the normal human body. It is closely linked with the study of all living things in the subject of biology: with the chemical reactions and    behaviour of cells under different conditions in biochemistry, and with physics in the study of the physical reactions and movements taking place in the body.           The body is made up of may tissues and organs, each having its own particular function to perform.  The cell is the unit or the smallest element of the body of which all parts are comprised.  The cells are adapted to perform the special functions of the organs or tissue they are in. Some cells, such as those in the nervous system and muscle, are very specialised indeed: others, such as those in the connective tissues, are less highly developed. As a general rule the most highly specialised cells are the least able to withstand damage and also are the most difficult to repair or replace.                                                                                              (continue)

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